Infertility is prevalent in about 10%-25% of couples in their reproductive age, analogous to 60-80 million infertile couples globally. Of these infertility cases, 10%-30% are exclusively attributed to a problem of the male. Several diseases have been implicated as contributors to deteriorating male fertility and diabetes mellitus (DM) is included. DM, a chronic non-communicable disease, has been considered as one of the most appreciable health threats, as it affects 9% (422 million) of the world’s population as of 2014. It is characterised by hyperglycaemia, which can result from the inability of the pancreatic β-cells to secrete insulin or from the target tissue becoming insensitive to insulin. DM has been reported to influence male reproductive function through diverse pathways and mechanisms. The adverse effects of reactive oxygen species and successive development of oxidative stress that occur due to DM have been investigated and implicated by several studies. The products of non-enzymatic glycosylation are reported to be widely distributed in the reproductive tract of diabetic men. Additionally, DM has been implicated to impair the processes of male sexual acts. Data reported in this review were extracted from PubMed, Google Scholar, Science Direct and Scopus with diabetes and male infertility as the key search words. In light of the aforementioned, the aim of this review is to provide brief background information on DM as well highlight and explain the likely mechanisms of male fertility which DM impacts.

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Objective: To evaluate the effects of the methanolic extract of Guibourtia tessmannii (G. tesmannii) on sperm parameters, lipid profile and testosterone level in obese rats. Methods: A total of 193 male Wistar rats were fed either with palm oil diet (n=185) or standard diet (n=8) for 16 wk. At the end of this feeding period, 90 obese rats were selected and randomly divided into 18 groups of five rats each and treated with distilled water (10 mL/kg), vitamin E (75 mg/ kg), clomiphene citrate (2 mg/kg) or methanolic extract of G. tessmannii (55, 110 or 220 mg/ kg) for 7, 21 or 56 d. At the end of each treatment period, sperm parameters, lipid profile and testosterone level were evaluated. Data were analyzed using ANOVA for repeated measures followed by post-hoc Tukey HSD (P<0.05) for multiple comparisons. Results: Feeding of rats for 16 wk with palm oil diet significantly damaged sperm parameters. The methanolic extract of G. tesmannii improved sperm viability, motility and normality after 21 or 56 d of treatment. The sperm normality increased significantly in rats treated with the methanolic extract of G. tesmannii for 7 (110 mg/kg, P<0.01) and 56 d (110 and 220 mg/kg, P<0.05) compared to control group. Triglycerids, total cholesterol, low and very low density lipoproteins cholesterol levels were lower in rats treated with the plant extract for 56 d. G. tesmannii also significantly increased the high density lipoprotein cholesterol and testosterone levels in the plasma after 56 d of treatment. Conclusions: The methanolic extract of G. tesmannii can improve sperm parameters, lipid profile and testosterone level in obese rats. These findings may justify the folkloric use of G. tesmannii as a reproductive performance enhancer.

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Objective: To reveal the trend in alterations of sperm counts in Asian men over the past 50 years. Methods: This study reviewed all the published reports to unveil the specific pattern of alterations of sperm concentrations in Asian men from 1965 till 2015. The time-related changes in sperm concentration were studied using linear regression analyses. Results: The present study elucidated the trend using the reports from Carlsen et al (1965-1990) and non-Carlsen studies published until 2015, on fertile Asian men. In the reports of Carlsen et al, no overall declining trend in Asian men (r = 0.509, P = 0.760) was observed during this tenure, but non- Carsen reports showed a significant time-dependent decline of sperm concentration (r = -0.754, P = 0.005) in Asian men. This present review also showed a mild time-dependant decline in sperm concentration (-0.44×10⁶/mL/year, 95% CI: -0.65 to -0.23; r = -0.473, P = 0.040) which accounted for an overall 22.17% decrease in past 50 years. Conclusions: This study brings to the forefront that sperm concentration among Asian men follows a mild declining trend over the period of 50 years, and further studies addressing the causes of this decline are required.

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Objective: To evaluate the effect of marine brown alga Sargassum polycystum extract on growth and biochemical parameters of Vigna radiata and Vigna mungo. Methods: Different concentrations of algal extracts (0.5%, 1.0%, 2.0%, 3.0%, 4.0%, and 5.0%) were prepared and applied to the crops at every 10-day intervals under natural conditions. After 30 d, the plants were harvested to evaluate the growth and biochemical parameters. Results: Seaweed liquid fertilizers treated seedlings showed maximum growth in 3.0% concentration when compared to the untreated seedlings. Similarly, biochemical parameters such as photosynthetic pigments, protein, reducing sugar, total sugar and amino acids exhibited increases in 3.0% concentration seaweed extract. Decreases in growth and biochemical parameters were noticed in concentrations higher than 3.0%. Conclusions: Presence of micronutrients and growth regulating substances in the liquid extract help healthier and faster productivity of the crop.

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Objective: To evaluate the antioxidant effect of quercetin on cell viability, reactive oxygen species (ROS) contents and apoptosis of cryopreserved mouse spermatogonial stem cells (mSSCs). Methods: mSSCs were isolated from neonate mice and cultivated in culture medium containing 30 μΜ quercetin for 48 h and then frozen for 2 weeks. After thawing, MTT assay was carried out to analyze the cell viability. Moreover, intracellular ROS levels were measured by flow cytometery and apoptosis was evaluated by detection of phosphatidylserine externalization assay and also real-time polymerase chain reaction. Results: Pre-treatment of mSSCs by 30 μΜ quercetin significantly decreased intracellular ROS content and apoptotic cell numbers and improved viability of mSSCs. Moreover, the gene expression of Bcl-2 and Bax significantly increased and decreased respectively after the freeze-thawing process. Conclusions: Pre-treatment of mSSCs with quercetin can improve cell viability and reduce apoptosis during freeze-thawing process. It can be a promising way to improve the quality and efficiency of cryopreservation protocols used in fertility preservation strategies.

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Low sperm numbers in artificial insemination (AI)-doses are being used widely to make the best use of high genetic value bulls as well as sex-sorted semen. Sperm concentration needed for AI to obtain reasonable fertility, taking genetic value of bull and numerous others components into consideration is one of the essential constituents for successful AI breeding program. However, low sperm concentrations in AI-doses lead to reducing post-thaw viability. The reduction in viability of low sperm doses may be affected by fresh semen volume, sperm number and seminal plasma level at final dilution. Reduction in quality and fertility of low sperm doses is one of the limitations for their use in successful AI programme. Sperm number per AI required to achieve optimum fertility is one of the main crucial things to AI industry, and numerous efforts have been made in this regard. Due to great variability among bulls, sperm number per AI could be a limiting factor in achieving acceptable fertility values. Fertility of low sperm doses may vary among bulls, and non-return rates (NRRs) with low sperm doses may be determined by fertility level of bull. On the basis of individual bulls, sperm numbers in AI doses needed to be adjusted to reduce the variations in NRRs among bulls. Utilizing high fertile bulls for low sperm doses with acceptable non-return rates (NRRs) may be a way to cover a large number of bovines under AI in countries like India. Deposition site within the uterine horn may alter non return rates following inseminations with low sperm doses. Following deep-uterine inseminations, acceptable pregnancies may be achieved with low sperm doses and even if ovulation side is unknown.

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Thyroid hormones have been well studied for its relevance to male reproduction in the last few decades. They are considered as essential regulators of male reproductive functions and play vital roles in male gonadal developments. Hyperthyroidism and hypothyroidism both affect testicular functions and influence neuroendocrine regulations over reproductive functions via the crosstalk between the hypothalamic-pituitary-thyroid axis and the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. The alterations in the male reproductive hormonal milieu by thyroid hormones may lead to reduced testosterone levels and deterioration of semen quality. However, there are very few reports on the direct effects of thyroid disorders upon testicular functions and semen quality. This article aims to review the available literature to present a concise updated concept on the regulation of male reproductive functions by the thyroid hormones, and the possible mechanism by which thyroid dysfunctions affects testicular functions.

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Objective: To confirm the efficacy of non-antibiotic treatment with prostaglandin F₂ α (PGF₂ α) in dairy cows affected by severe clinical endometritis in (30±3) days in milk. Methods: Cows with clinical endometritis 1 (n=399) were aligned into three groups randomly. The first group (n=115) received PGF₂ α, the second group (n=84) received intrauterine infusion (lUI) of oxytetracycline 10% + PGF_{2 α}, and the third group (n=200) received IUI. Cows were inseminated following estrus. The pregnancy status, parity, calving and artificial insemination season, ovaries with corpus luteum at the time of treatment, dystocia, body condition score and treatment groups were included in data analysis. Results: Total pregnancy rate was 40.1% after the first insemination and 94.2% after the third insemination. Overall pregnancy rate of treated cows with IUI+PGF₂ α (84.5%) was significantly lower than the treated cows with PGF_{2 α}(98.3%) or IUI (96%) (P<0.05). The first service pregnancy rate of inseminated cows in summer (14.3%) was lower in comparison with cows inseminated in spring (40.4%), fall (41.4%) and winter (51.7%) (P<0.05). Conclusions: PGF₂ α could treat severe clinical endometritis in dairy cows with corpus luteum in comparison with other treatments.

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Objective: To investigate the antifertility properties of Centella asiatica L. ethanolic extract and identify the sperm proteomic changes in treated male rats. Methods: A total of 32 male Sprague-Dawley rats were divided into two groups: control group (n=16) received distilled water and treatment group (n=16) which received 300 mg/kg of Centella asiatica L. extract for 42 d. After the treatment period, the number of implantation sites was recorded and the sperm proteomic changes were analysed by 2D gel electrophoresis. In addition, the expression of protein spots was quantified by MALDI-TOF analysis. Results: Centella asiatica L. extract resulted in low number of implantation sites in the treatment group (100.00±2.82) compared to the control group (183.00±2.14). The percentage of infertile male rats in the treatment group was higher (43.75%) compared to the control group (18.75%). Proteomic analysis showed the expression of protein spots identified in the treatment group decreased with 234 spots compared to the control group with 282 spots. Conclusions: The results revealed that there was antifertility activity in the male rats with the administration of Centella asiatica L. ethanol extract and the identified proteins could provide understanding on the adverse effect of Centella asiatica in male reproductive system.

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With a high rate of infertility, it is important to understand the context of fertility and family planning in China, to inform the necessity of supportive care. A literature review was undertaken to explore the societal constructs informing perspectives of childbearing, family planning and infertility, alongside Chinese considerations of fertility treatments, including assisted reproductive technologies and fertility counselling. In China, childbearing attitudes and behaviours are shaped by tensions between traditional cultural values of the filial piety originating from Confucianism, the history of strict family planning policy, the recent termination of one-child policy and the socioeconomic circumstance. For infertile Chinese individuals, the inability to meet these childbearing expectations gives rise to significant pressure and consequent psychological distress, particularly depressive symptoms. Demographic factors such as gender, education, income and geographical location have been found to influence prevalence and degree of depression in infertile Chinese men and women. These difficulties are compounded by barriers of cultural acceptance, legislative restrictions and availability of resources for alternative options such as adoption and surrogacy. It is important that these fertility sociocultural factors are taken into consideration when assisting Chinese patients to access and utilise fertility treatment services.

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Rationale: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a highly infectious disease due to the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV2). Vertical transmission and clinical presentation of COVID-19 in pregnancy is still obscure. Additionally, the potential hazard of COVID-19 in pregnancy on the fetus and post-delivery risk for the neonate remain under investigations. Patient concern: A young-aged Asian pregnant woman with 28 weeks of gestation presented with fever, dyspnoea, headache, and joint pain with decreased fetal movement for about one week. Diagnosis: The patient was diagnosed with COVID-19 pneumonia. Interventions: The patient was referred to the quarantine sector and was treated with chloroquine orally, intravenous fluid and other supportive treatment. Outcomes: After one week of treatment, the patient improved. Seventeen days after admission to hospital and at 30 weeks of gestation, she started vaginal preterm delivery of a viable healthy neonate with negative COVID-19 test for two occasions. Lessons: COVID-19 pneumonia during pregnancy presents with similar clinical presentation of non-pregnant women. COVID-19 pneumonia during pregnancy increases the risk of preterm labour without evidence of vertical transmission.

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Rationale: Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a highly infectious disease due to the severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 (SARS-CoV2). Vertical transmission and clinical presentation of COVID-19 in pregnancy is still obscure. Additionally, the potential hazard of COVID-19 in pregnancy on the fetus and post-delivery risk for the neonate remain under investigations. Patient concern: A young-aged Asian pregnant woman with 28 weeks of gestation presented with fever, dyspnoea, headache, and joint pain with decreased fetal movement for about one week. Diagnosis: The patient was diagnosed with COVID-19 pneumonia. Interventions: The patient was referred to the quarantine sector and was treated with chloroquine orally, intravenous fluid and other supportive treatment. Outcomes: After one week of treatment, the patient improved. Seventeen days after admission to hospital and at 30 weeks of gestation, she started vaginal preterm delivery of a viable healthy neonate with negative COVID-19 test for two occasions. Lessons: COVID-19 pneumonia during pregnancy presents with similar clinical presentation of non-pregnant women. COVID-19 pneumonia during pregnancy increases the risk of preterm labour without evidence of vertical transmission.

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Objective: To estimate the effects of the water extract of dates palm (Phoenix dactylifera) (DWE) on sperm quality parameters, testosterone level and serum antioxidants activities of New Zealand rabbits under heat stress. Methods: A total of 30 bucks of New Zealand White rabbits were randomly divided into three equal groups as follows: Group 1 was treated as control group and fed on balanced commercial ration. Groups 2 and 3 were treated with 10 and 20 mL of dates extract substituting water in the early morning before watering and fed on balanced commercial ration. This schedule was performed daily for 5 days/week, for an experimental period of 5 weeks. Fertility parameters such as reaction time, potential of hydrogen ion (pH), mass motility, individual progressive motility %, percentage of live sperm and abnormal sperm (%) were measured. Blood serum testosterone level, serum glutathione reduced, nitric oxide, ascorbic acid and malondialdehyde were also determined. Results: The daily oral administration of 10 mL DWE significantly increased the pH, the mass motility and individual progressive motility % compared to the control group. Although, the consumption of 20 mL DWE significantly (P<0.000 1) increased the live sperm% and decreased the abnormal sperm % compared to the other two treatments. The administration of date extracts (10 and 20 mL) had significantly (P<0.000 1) decreased nitric oxide and glutathione reduced levels compared to the control. On the other hand, it increased significantly the lipid peroxidation, ascorbic acid and testosterone level compared to the control. Conclusions: The aqueous extract of date palm (10-20 mL) could enhance the rabbit bucks fertility and its health performance.

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Objective: To examine the effect of Cissus populnea root on testicular function of male Wistar rats. Methods: Twenty albino male Wistar rats [(100.0 ±25.5) g] were selected into four groups randomly. The control group were administered 0.20 mL of distilled water while the other groups received 0.05 mL, 0.10 mL, and 0.20 mL/kg body weight of ethanol infusion. Oral administration was done using oropharyngeal cannula once daily for 14 days. Animals were thereafter sacrificed on day 15. Data obtained from this study were analysed using one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) with multiple comparisons, post-hoc Tukey HSD was subsequently used and values at P<0.05 were considered statistically significant. Results: There were significant increases in serum testosterone, testes-body weight ratio, luteinising hormone and follicle stimulating hormone, respectively, compared with those in control group. Similarly, increase in acid phosphatase, alkaline phosphatase, protein, glycogen and cholesterol levels were more significant compared with those in control group. Conclusions: The findings of this study reveals enhanced secretions of the sex hormones and other indices at 0.05 mL/kg body weight administration of Cissus populnea root ethanol infusion. However, dosages exceeding 0.05 mL/kg body weight gradually depletes the level of reproductive indices assayed for in this current study. Therefore, caution must be taken when consuming ethanol infusion of Cissus populnea root above the dosages used in this current study.

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Objective: To evaluate the impact of Olea (O.) europaea extract on markers of oxidative stress and apoptosis of ovarian tissues in a rat model of torsion/detorsion-induced ovarian damage. Methods: A total of 28 Wistar female rats were randomly assigned into 4 groups, with 7 rats in each group. The sham group received a 2.5 cm longitudinal incision in the midline part of the abdomen which was then sutured with 5-0 nylon thread; the torsion/detorsion group underwent torsion induction for 3 h followed by reperfusion for 10 days; the torsion/detorsion+O. europaea group received 300 mg/kg hydro-alcoholic extract of O. europaea 30 min before detorsion, followed by reperfusion for 10 days; and the O. europaea group only received 300 mg/kg hydro-alcoholic extract of O. europaea for 10 days. After the treatment period, blood samples were taken; the levels of estrogen, glutathione peroxidase, superoxide dismutase, and malondialdehyde were assayed. The histological changes, as well as the rate of apoptosis in ovarian tissues, were also carried out by histomorphometric analysis at day 10 post-procedure. Results: Histological comparisons demonstrated a significant detrimental change in the torsion/ detorsion group as compared with other groups. The number of pre-antral and antral follicles and corpus luteum was significantly decreased in the torsion/detorsion group compared with the sham group, while treatment with O. europaea could enhance their numbers (P<0.05). The index of apoptosis and the number of atretic body in the ovarian tissue were significantly higher in the torsion/detorsion group compared with the sham group (P<0.05). The concentrations of glutathione peroxidase, estrogen, and superoxide dismutase as well as the mRNA expression of Bcl-2 were considerably diminished in the torsion/detorsion group while they were elevated in the torsion/detorsion+O. europaea group (P<0.05) compared with the torsion/detorsion group. The serum malondialdehyde level and the mRNA expression of Bax were markedly increased during ischemia, while treatment with O. europaea significantly diminished the increased concentrations of malondialdehyde and Bax level in the torsion/detorsion+O. europaea group (P<0.05). Conclusions: O. europaea extract can reduce the degree of tissue damage induced by oxidative stress and apoptosis in the ovary following ovarian ischemia/reperfusion.

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Adiponectin is an adipokine that has the highest plasma concentration among all other adipokines. It is a white adipose tissue secretion essential for the regulation of energy metabolism owing to its antiatherogenic insulin-resistance, and anti-inflammatory properties. Studies have put forth that adiponectin is a potent endocrine regulator with mechanisms relating energy balance with reproductive function in different species, including humans. The two adiponectin receptors, AdipoR1 and AdipoR2 have been found to be expressed in the prime regulatory axis of reproduction, the hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis. The activation of adiponectin receptors has been shown to regulate the secretion and gene expressions of kisspeptin, gonadotropin-releasing hormone and gonadotropins. Adiponectin finds relevance in the regulations of most of the vital testicular functions, such as steroidogenesis, germ cell proliferation and their coordinated apoptosis, as well as in modulation of testicular redox status and oxidative stress. Since metabolic syndrome and their associations with male infertility have been gaining immense research interest, adiponectin seems to be one of the important mediators of metabolic syndrome-induced male reproductive dysfunctions. This article aims to review the patterns of adiponectin expression in the male reproductive tissues and the mechanism by which adiponectin modulates male reproductive functions.

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Objective: To study the methods of increasing the reproductive qualities and indices of viability in the offspring of Holstein cows under conditions of intensive milk production. Methods: Studies were conducted on 3 groups of Holstein cows with 30 heads in each group. Animals of the experimental groups had a different length physiological period. The study focused on experimental groups of animals: the reproductive indicators, the viability of newborn calves, and their growth rate. All the digital materials of the experimental data were processed by the method of variation statistics for the significance of the difference of the compared parameters using the Student’s criterion, adopted in biology and zootechnics. Results: Studies found that reduction of the duration of the service period, along with a simultaneous increase in the inter-lactation period to 80-90 days, increased the reproductive capacity of the cows, and enhances the viability of the offspring compared with their peers. Conclusions: The study revealed the optimal duration of the physiological periods in high- producing cows under conditions of intensive milk production technology.

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Objective: To monitor the levels of aspartate transaminase (AST) and alanine transaminase (ALT) enzymes and testosterone hormone in months and seasons of Iraq. Methods: In this experiment, 20 (2.0-3.5 years old) Iraqi Awassi rams were used which were housed in semi opened shade. Blood samples (2-3 mL) were collected once a week for over period 12 mo. AST and ALT activities were measured by using colorimetric method, and testesterone analysis was performed with an automatic analyzer. Results: The activities of both AST and ALT enzymes were increased significantly (P<0.05) during summer, on monthly basis, June showed the significantly highest value (P<0.05). The present study revealed that testosterone in autumn and summer was recorded significantly highest (P<0.05) in comparison with other seasons and on monthly basis the significant (P<0.05) highest level of testosterone was found between September and August months. Conclusions: AST and ALT enzymes are the highest during summer, and on monthly basis they are the highest in June, while testosterone level is recorded highest in autumn season, and on monthly basis November shows the highest value.

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Objective: To explore the change of platelet indices namely plateletcrit, platelet distribution width and mean platelet volume among patients with recurrent pregnancy loss (RPL). Methods: The medical records of 45 women with a history of RPL and 45 women who gave birth without RPL were reviewed retrospectively from three governmental hospitals in Yemen. The personal, obstetric and complete blood count reports were analyzed. Results: Platelets’ count and indices were significantly higher among RPL patients when compared to the control and the receiver operating characteristic curve for each platelet index showed significant area under the curve, with higher area for plateletcrit followed by platelet distribution width and then mean platelet volume. While the multiple logistic regression analysis for all platelets indices revealed that the platelet distribution width was the significant predictor for RPL in this study. Conclusions: The use of platelet indices may help gynecologists in predicting high risk pregnancy (pregnancy loss) in the low resources areas in Yemen.

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Objective: To analyse the seasonal effect on physiological parameters, reproductive profiles and in vitro fertility in breeding mithun bulls. Methods: A total of ten adult mithun bulls age of 5 to 6 years old with good body condition (score 5-6) were selected from ICAR-NRC on Mithun, Jharnapani, Nagaland, India. The seasons were categorised into winter, spring, summer and autumn seasons based on the meteorological data and sunshine hours. The physiological parameters, reproductive profiles and in vitro fertility parameters were assessed during different seasons in mithun under the semi-intensive system of management. Results: The statistical analysis revealed that these experimental parameters were differed significantly (P<0.05) among the seasons and in overall spring and winter seasons were more beneficial in mithun breeding programme, although, the breeding in mithun occurred throughout the year with variation. Conclusions: It is concluded that collection & preservation of mithun semen and artificial insemination in mithun species during the season of spring and winter has significant beneficial effect in terms of semen production, freezability and fertility for artificial breeding programme in mithun under the semi-intensive system.

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Objective: To investigate the effect of coconut water with a lone concentration and different concentrations of glycerol on chilled and cryopreserved cattle semen characteristics. Methods: Semen was collected from five mature cattle bulls, at weekly intervals for 5 weeks. The ejaculates were pooled and evaluated for dilution processing. Tris citrate egg yolk fructose was used as control treatment for semen, while 50% (V/V) coconut water, 25% (V/V) bi-distilled water and 25% (V/V, 5% anhydrous monosodium citrate) to 20 mL egg yolk and three different concentrations of glycerol (4%, 6% and 8%) were used as coconut water (CW)- glycerol-yolk extenders (CWCG-4, CWCG-6 and CWCG-8). Extended semen was cooled and cryopreserved. Sperm motility%, sperm membrane integrity%, normal acrosome%, live sperm% and total sperm abnormalities% were recorded after equilibrium and after freeze-thawing. Results: The addition of 4% glycerol to coconut water enriched media (CWCG-4) revealed the most effective addition of glycerol on all parameters after equilibrium and after freeze-thawing. Conclusions: Coconut water enriched media with 4% glycerol addition is safe to be used as an extender in bull semen preservation because it is a sterile liquid. So, it can be used without addition of antibiotics to the extender, as antibiotics have to some extent hazardous effect on spermatozoa.

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The role of melatonin on sperm function as well as its use as antioxidant for sperm conservation is analysed in this review. Melatonin has been included in the cooling/freezing media for the conservation of spermatozoa. Depending on the animal species, the best dose to improve sperm quality and fertile capacity is in the range from 0.01 mM to 3.00 mM. Since the work started on the use of melatonin as antioxidant for the conservation of spermatozoa (2011), a search for references was done on the subject using internet and our university libraries: journals, proceedings, thesis, etc. The search focused on animal spermatozoa, but a collection of papers on human spermatozoa was also carried out.

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Quality semen production remains the main focus and objective of semen processing laboratories throughout the world. Bacterial and other microbial contaminants affect the semen quality and hence the fertility, and also lead to reproductive disorders as well as lower conception rates and increased embryonic mortality, abortion and other complications in females. Microbial contamination affects the semen adversely, by exerting direct spermicidal effect, formation of reactive oxygen species, toxin production, adherence with spermatozoa, deriving nutrients and oxygen from the medium and thus competing with spermatozoa for the factors of growth and normal functioning. Despite hygienic measures, several ubiquitous and opportunistic microbes find their ways into semen during collection, processing, and storage of semen, and survive even during freezing. Stringent sanitary precautions are therefore required at every step of collecting semen and its processing. Preputial cavity is considered as main source of semen contaminating microorganisms. Flushing the preputial cavity with normal saline or any suitable liquid combination with antimicrobial activity, prior to semen collection reduces the microbial load and thereby improves the semen quality.

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Artificial insemination made a predominant contribution towards the improvement of genetic potential and increased productivity in animal husbandry sectors. In frozen semen technology, about 50% of sperm died because of cryoinjury or cryodamage during the process of cryopreservation and thawing of the semen. These cryo-damages can be minimized by use of various cryoprotective agents or cold shock absorbers in the frozen semen technology. Of which, egg yolk (EY) is most primarily important in the extender preparation for various mammalian species for longer period and it works against the cold shock during the cryopreservation process due to the presence of low density lipoproteins (LDL). Further, EY contains substances other than LDL that affect the sperm quality parameters especially reduced motility and inhibit the respiration of sperm; therefore, there was heavy demand on replacement of the EY with the particular responsible substances (LDL) in the semen extender. Later on, various investigators tried to extract the LDL from the EY of hen and finally succeeded to extract the LDL from the EY of hen for semen preservation of various species. The concentration of LDL used in various species is varied and this may be due to the composition and concentration of phospholipids, cholesterol and its proportion in the sperm membrane. In bovine species, the concentration of LDL was standardized as 8% (w/v) on dry matter basis. This is equal to 20% EY used in conventional semen extender. As it is explained that the 20% EY contains 68% LDL (13.6 g) and on dry matter basis, it is approximately 60% (8.16 g). This calculation indicates 20% EY contains 8% LDL on dry matter basis. The LDL protects the sperm by various mechanisms to maintain the integrity of sperm membrane, which is explained in the present review. It was concluded that the investigation is still to be carried out to find out the exact roles of apoproteins and lipids of LDL and to indentify and isolate the detrimental substances presented in the whole EY.

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